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Yes,ok.
Are you preparing section 3 in history?
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2059/02: Key Points
- Thread starter unitika
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NICE ONE
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hi uni
i got eviromenatl notes
ye lo hope so it will be help ful
i got eviromenatl notes
ye lo hope so it will be help ful
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01 Relevance of Environmental Management course in Management curriculum.
Environmental management is the management of interaction by the modern human societies with, and impact upon the environment. The three main issues that affect managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects), and resources (money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. A more common philosophy and impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying capacity which refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. Environmental management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake.
Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment.
As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An 'environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.
Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables - toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase, better environmental management is achieved without "systems".
Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of "Integrated Management". It shares a wider approach and stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to all cases.
"Today's businesses must comply with many Federal, State and local environmental laws, rules, and regulations. It's vital to safeguard your company against compliance short-cuts. This approach leaves you vulnerable to violations of the law, in addition to missing important environmental liabilities."
Environmental management is the management of interaction by the modern human societies with, and impact upon the environment. The three main issues that affect managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects), and resources (money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. A more common philosophy and impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying capacity which refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. Environmental management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake.
Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment.
As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An 'environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.
Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables - toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase, better environmental management is achieved without "systems".
Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of "Integrated Management". It shares a wider approach and stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to all cases.
"Today's businesses must comply with many Federal, State and local environmental laws, rules, and regulations. It's vital to safeguard your company against compliance short-cuts. This approach leaves you vulnerable to violations of the law, in addition to missing important environmental liabilities."
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02 Why do managers need to study Environmental Management?
Environmental management issues now feature prominently on national and international political agendas. Global climate change, sea-level rise, and pollution are threatening the equilibrium of the planet. Against the backdrop of these environmental concerns, there is increasing demand around the world for highly skilled managers of the environment. Those who have studied environmental management can help to meet the demand. Managers with a good idea on environmental management find that job opportunities are expanding in public and private sector agencies and companies for specialist staff to help devise strategies to meet ambitious sustainability targets set by governments across the world. Not only is the employment opportunities excellent for such people, there could hardly be a more important field for a career than environmental management.
While the competencies acquired as a result of studying for an MBA degree in are undoubtedly valuable, many employers seek recruits with specialised training. Employers look for expertise and experience in subjects such as environmental law, economics and policy formulation, environmental assessment techniques, environmental management approaches and strategies (including, for example, coastal management, land restoration, marine environment management, or forest management). The facility to use geographical information systems (GIS), and to analyse data sets – perhaps acquired by remote sensing - is also deemed essential.
Such studies, undertaken within the crucial context of a deep understanding of sustainability issues, global environmental change, and international environmental politics, provide the kind of challenging and advanced education needed by those who are required to make critical environmental management judgements that fundamentally affect the lives of us all.
Environmental management issues now feature prominently on national and international political agendas. Global climate change, sea-level rise, and pollution are threatening the equilibrium of the planet. Against the backdrop of these environmental concerns, there is increasing demand around the world for highly skilled managers of the environment. Those who have studied environmental management can help to meet the demand. Managers with a good idea on environmental management find that job opportunities are expanding in public and private sector agencies and companies for specialist staff to help devise strategies to meet ambitious sustainability targets set by governments across the world. Not only is the employment opportunities excellent for such people, there could hardly be a more important field for a career than environmental management.
While the competencies acquired as a result of studying for an MBA degree in are undoubtedly valuable, many employers seek recruits with specialised training. Employers look for expertise and experience in subjects such as environmental law, economics and policy formulation, environmental assessment techniques, environmental management approaches and strategies (including, for example, coastal management, land restoration, marine environment management, or forest management). The facility to use geographical information systems (GIS), and to analyse data sets – perhaps acquired by remote sensing - is also deemed essential.
Such studies, undertaken within the crucial context of a deep understanding of sustainability issues, global environmental change, and international environmental politics, provide the kind of challenging and advanced education needed by those who are required to make critical environmental management judgements that fundamentally affect the lives of us all.
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03 Why Copenhagen summit acquired so much importance?
The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as the Copenhagen Summit, was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen, Denmark, between 7 December and 18 December. The conference included the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 5th Meeting of the Parties (COP/MOP 5) to the Kyoto Protocol. According to the Bali Road Map, a framework for climate change mitigation beyond 2012 was to be agreed there.
The conference was preceded by the Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions scientific conference, which took place in March 2009 and was also held at the Bella Center. The negotiations began to take a new format when in May 2009 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon attended the World Business Summit on Climate Change in Copenhagen, organised by the Copenhagen Climate Council (COC), where he requested that COC councillors attend New York's Climate Week at the Summit on Climate Change on 22 September and engage with heads of government on the topic of the climate problem.
The Copenhagen Accord was drafted by the US, China, India, Brazil and South Africa on December 18, and judged a "meaningful agreement" by the United States government. It was "recognised", but not "agreed upon", in a debate of all the participating countries the next day, and it was not passed unanimously. The document recognised that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the present and that actions should be taken to keep any temperature increases to below 2°C. The document is not legally binding and does not contain any legally binding commitments for reducing CO2 emissions. Leaders of industrialised countries, including Barack Obama and Gordon Brown, were pleased with this agreement but many leaders of other countries and non-governmental organisations were opposed to it.
Although developing countries are still not satisfied by the outcome of the summit, there is now the prospect of limiting the negative effects on the climate. Moreover, huge sums will be released, in addition to the money spent on development cooperation, to reduce damage from climate change (such as starvation due to drought which is now visible in Africa, or destruction of houses due to flooding).
The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as the Copenhagen Summit, was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen, Denmark, between 7 December and 18 December. The conference included the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 5th Meeting of the Parties (COP/MOP 5) to the Kyoto Protocol. According to the Bali Road Map, a framework for climate change mitigation beyond 2012 was to be agreed there.
The conference was preceded by the Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions scientific conference, which took place in March 2009 and was also held at the Bella Center. The negotiations began to take a new format when in May 2009 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon attended the World Business Summit on Climate Change in Copenhagen, organised by the Copenhagen Climate Council (COC), where he requested that COC councillors attend New York's Climate Week at the Summit on Climate Change on 22 September and engage with heads of government on the topic of the climate problem.
The Copenhagen Accord was drafted by the US, China, India, Brazil and South Africa on December 18, and judged a "meaningful agreement" by the United States government. It was "recognised", but not "agreed upon", in a debate of all the participating countries the next day, and it was not passed unanimously. The document recognised that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the present and that actions should be taken to keep any temperature increases to below 2°C. The document is not legally binding and does not contain any legally binding commitments for reducing CO2 emissions. Leaders of industrialised countries, including Barack Obama and Gordon Brown, were pleased with this agreement but many leaders of other countries and non-governmental organisations were opposed to it.
Although developing countries are still not satisfied by the outcome of the summit, there is now the prospect of limiting the negative effects on the climate. Moreover, huge sums will be released, in addition to the money spent on development cooperation, to reduce damage from climate change (such as starvation due to drought which is now visible in Africa, or destruction of houses due to flooding).
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New opportunities
The US, the European Union, India and China take the issue of climate change very seriously and Chinese Premier Wen is willing to take concrete steps in years to come, even though CO2 emissions per capita in China are low in comparison to the US and Europe.
Despite the absence of a new formal UN treaty, Copenhagen summit is a turning point in history, now that the international community has decided to make a real transition to sustainable energy and to an economy that produces less carbon dioxide. This decision provides new opportunities for industries which are already strong in sustainable energy, including production of solar cells, wind and hydropower.
Similarly, countries can produce more energy by converting the sun's rays into electrical power, for example in southern Europe or North Africa. Africa can become a producer of electricity from solar energy and sustainable use of biomass (for example plant remains or cow manure) for biogas production.
The US, the European Union, India and China take the issue of climate change very seriously and Chinese Premier Wen is willing to take concrete steps in years to come, even though CO2 emissions per capita in China are low in comparison to the US and Europe.
Despite the absence of a new formal UN treaty, Copenhagen summit is a turning point in history, now that the international community has decided to make a real transition to sustainable energy and to an economy that produces less carbon dioxide. This decision provides new opportunities for industries which are already strong in sustainable energy, including production of solar cells, wind and hydropower.
Similarly, countries can produce more energy by converting the sun's rays into electrical power, for example in southern Europe or North Africa. Africa can become a producer of electricity from solar energy and sustainable use of biomass (for example plant remains or cow manure) for biogas production.
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More insightful
This revolution will not happen without a fight and will involve a substantial financial commitment. This commitment can be made manageable by reducing the cost of energy for fossil fuels and because sustainable energy will be increasingly cheaper in the future. Countries will be able to achieve economies of scale and will have to be more discerning, for example in the use of solar energy. The old energy facilities will be replaced by new technologies. It will be necessary to adjust energy prices and activities that require high levels of energy, for example by limiting air traffic to a bare minimum. Countries should make use of biofuels in planes or compensate for CO2 emissions in a sustainable way, such as reforestation.
Obviously it was not possible in Copenhagen to reach a treaty that regulates the climate problem directly and definitely. In the coming years, climate policy will really start to take shape. However, what has come out of the summit is clear: an increasing number of countries around the world are aware that we must address the problem of global warming and are willing to contribute to that in a major way. With new technologies, better control over population growth and modifying our lifestyles, change is definitely possible.
This revolution will not happen without a fight and will involve a substantial financial commitment. This commitment can be made manageable by reducing the cost of energy for fossil fuels and because sustainable energy will be increasingly cheaper in the future. Countries will be able to achieve economies of scale and will have to be more discerning, for example in the use of solar energy. The old energy facilities will be replaced by new technologies. It will be necessary to adjust energy prices and activities that require high levels of energy, for example by limiting air traffic to a bare minimum. Countries should make use of biofuels in planes or compensate for CO2 emissions in a sustainable way, such as reforestation.
Obviously it was not possible in Copenhagen to reach a treaty that regulates the climate problem directly and definitely. In the coming years, climate policy will really start to take shape. However, what has come out of the summit is clear: an increasing number of countries around the world are aware that we must address the problem of global warming and are willing to contribute to that in a major way. With new technologies, better control over population growth and modifying our lifestyles, change is definitely possible.
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15 Role of inversion in the stagnation of pollution in a locality.
An inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It almost always refers to a temperature inversion, i.e., an increase in temperature with height, or to the layer (inversion layer) within which such an increase occurs.
An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground, with possible adverse effects on health. An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a "cap". If this cap is broken for any of several reasons, convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms. Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates.
Usually, within the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it e.g. by thermals (convective heat transfer). Under certain conditions, the normal vertical temperature gradient is inverted such that the air is colder near the surface of the Earth. This can occur when, for example, a warmer, less dense air mass moves over a cooler, denser air mass. This type of inversion occurs in the vicinity of warm fronts, and also in areas of oceanic. With sufficient humidity in the cooler layer, fog is typically present below the inversion cap. An inversion is also produced whenever radiation from the surface of the earth exceeds the amount of radiation received from the sun, which commonly occurs at night, or during the winter when the angle of the sun is very low in the sky. This effect is virtually confined to land regions as the ocean retains heat far longer. In the polar regions during winter, inversions are nearly always present over land.
A warmer air mass moving over a cooler one can "shut off" any convection which may be present in the cooler air mass. This is known as a capping inversion. However, if this cap is broken, either by extreme convection overcoming the cap, or by the lifting effect of a front or a mountain range, the sudden release of bottled-up convective energy — like the bursting of a balloon — can result in severe thunderstorms. Such capping inversions typically precede the development of tornadoes in the midwestern United States. In this instance, the "cooler" layer is actually quite warm, but is still denser and usually cooler than the lower part of the inversion layer capping it.
With the ceasing of convection, which is normally present in the atmosphere, a number of phenomena are associated with a temperature inversion. The air becomes
stiller, hence the air becomes murky because dust and pollutants are no longer lifted from the surface.
This can become a problem in cities where many pollutants exist. Inversion effects occur frequently in big cities such as Mumbai, India; Los Angeles, California; Mexico City ; Sao Paulo, Brazil; Santiago, Chile; and Tehran, Iran, but also in smaller cities like Oslo, Norway, Salt Lake City, Utah, and Boise, Idaho, which are closely surrounded by hills and mountains that together with the inversion effect bottle-caps the air in the city. During a severe inversion, trapped air pollutants form a brownish haze that can cause respiratory problems. The Great Smog, one of the most serious examples of such an inversion, occurred in London in 1952 and was blamed for thousands of deaths.
Sometimes the inversion layer is higher so that the cumulus clouds can condense but then they spread out under the inversion layer. This cuts out sunlight to the ground and prevents new thermals from forming. A period of cloudiness is followed by sunny weather as the clouds disperse. This cycle can occur more than once in a day.
The index of refraction of air decreases as the air temperature increases, a side effect of hotter air being less dense. Normally this results in distant objects being shortened vertically, an effect that is easy to see at sunset (where the sun is "squished" into an oval). In an inversion the normal pattern is reversed, and distant objects are instead stretched out or appear to be above the horizon. This leads to the interesting optical effects of Fata Morgana or mirage.
Similarly, very-high frequency (VHF - 30 to 300 MHz) radio waves (being part of the electromagnetic spectrum, like light) can be refracted by such inversions. This is why it is possible to sometimes hear FM radio (or watch VHF-LO band TV) broadcasts from otherwise impossible distances as far as a few hundred miles distant on foggy nights. The signal, still powerful enough to be received even at hundreds or rarely, thousands, of miles, would normally be refracted up and away from the ground-based antenna, is instead refracted down towards the earth by the temperature-inversion boundary layer. This phenomenon is called tropospheric ducting. It is also referred to as skip by small radio operators and Ham operators. Along coast lines during Autumn and Spring many FM radio stations are plagued by severe signal degradation causing them to sound like "scrambled eggs".
Inversions can magnify the so called "green flash": a phenomenon occurring at sunrise/sunset, usually visible for a few seconds, in which the sun's green light is isolated due to dispersion - the shorter wavelength is refracted most, so it is the first/last light from the upper rim of the solar disc to be seen.
In addition, when an inversion layer is present (for example early in the morning when ground-level air temperatures are cool, and high-level air temperatures are warmer), if a sound or explosion occurs at ground level, the sound wave can get totally reflected from the warmer upper layer (in which the sound travel faster, i.e. the air has lower acoustic refractive index, so the sound can undergo total internal reflection) and return back to ground level; the sound is therefore heard much further than normal. The shock wave from an explosion can be reflected by an inversion layer in much the same way as it bounces off the ground in an air-burst and can cause additional damage as a result. This phenomenon killed three people in the RDS-37 nuclear test.
In an inversion, vertical motion in the atmosphere is suppressed because the atmosphere is stable. Hence vertical heat transport by eddies is suppressed; this reduced
downwards) heat transport leads to further cooling of the lower surface. This can lead to an effective decoupling of the atmosphere from the surface in extreme conditions, such as may be found in Antarctica during the polar night, where inversions greater than 25 °C commonly occur.When it happens the sky is a reddish color.
An inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It almost always refers to a temperature inversion, i.e., an increase in temperature with height, or to the layer (inversion layer) within which such an increase occurs.
An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground, with possible adverse effects on health. An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a "cap". If this cap is broken for any of several reasons, convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms. Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates.
Usually, within the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it e.g. by thermals (convective heat transfer). Under certain conditions, the normal vertical temperature gradient is inverted such that the air is colder near the surface of the Earth. This can occur when, for example, a warmer, less dense air mass moves over a cooler, denser air mass. This type of inversion occurs in the vicinity of warm fronts, and also in areas of oceanic. With sufficient humidity in the cooler layer, fog is typically present below the inversion cap. An inversion is also produced whenever radiation from the surface of the earth exceeds the amount of radiation received from the sun, which commonly occurs at night, or during the winter when the angle of the sun is very low in the sky. This effect is virtually confined to land regions as the ocean retains heat far longer. In the polar regions during winter, inversions are nearly always present over land.
A warmer air mass moving over a cooler one can "shut off" any convection which may be present in the cooler air mass. This is known as a capping inversion. However, if this cap is broken, either by extreme convection overcoming the cap, or by the lifting effect of a front or a mountain range, the sudden release of bottled-up convective energy — like the bursting of a balloon — can result in severe thunderstorms. Such capping inversions typically precede the development of tornadoes in the midwestern United States. In this instance, the "cooler" layer is actually quite warm, but is still denser and usually cooler than the lower part of the inversion layer capping it.
With the ceasing of convection, which is normally present in the atmosphere, a number of phenomena are associated with a temperature inversion. The air becomes
stiller, hence the air becomes murky because dust and pollutants are no longer lifted from the surface.
This can become a problem in cities where many pollutants exist. Inversion effects occur frequently in big cities such as Mumbai, India; Los Angeles, California; Mexico City ; Sao Paulo, Brazil; Santiago, Chile; and Tehran, Iran, but also in smaller cities like Oslo, Norway, Salt Lake City, Utah, and Boise, Idaho, which are closely surrounded by hills and mountains that together with the inversion effect bottle-caps the air in the city. During a severe inversion, trapped air pollutants form a brownish haze that can cause respiratory problems. The Great Smog, one of the most serious examples of such an inversion, occurred in London in 1952 and was blamed for thousands of deaths.
Sometimes the inversion layer is higher so that the cumulus clouds can condense but then they spread out under the inversion layer. This cuts out sunlight to the ground and prevents new thermals from forming. A period of cloudiness is followed by sunny weather as the clouds disperse. This cycle can occur more than once in a day.
The index of refraction of air decreases as the air temperature increases, a side effect of hotter air being less dense. Normally this results in distant objects being shortened vertically, an effect that is easy to see at sunset (where the sun is "squished" into an oval). In an inversion the normal pattern is reversed, and distant objects are instead stretched out or appear to be above the horizon. This leads to the interesting optical effects of Fata Morgana or mirage.
Similarly, very-high frequency (VHF - 30 to 300 MHz) radio waves (being part of the electromagnetic spectrum, like light) can be refracted by such inversions. This is why it is possible to sometimes hear FM radio (or watch VHF-LO band TV) broadcasts from otherwise impossible distances as far as a few hundred miles distant on foggy nights. The signal, still powerful enough to be received even at hundreds or rarely, thousands, of miles, would normally be refracted up and away from the ground-based antenna, is instead refracted down towards the earth by the temperature-inversion boundary layer. This phenomenon is called tropospheric ducting. It is also referred to as skip by small radio operators and Ham operators. Along coast lines during Autumn and Spring many FM radio stations are plagued by severe signal degradation causing them to sound like "scrambled eggs".
Inversions can magnify the so called "green flash": a phenomenon occurring at sunrise/sunset, usually visible for a few seconds, in which the sun's green light is isolated due to dispersion - the shorter wavelength is refracted most, so it is the first/last light from the upper rim of the solar disc to be seen.
In addition, when an inversion layer is present (for example early in the morning when ground-level air temperatures are cool, and high-level air temperatures are warmer), if a sound or explosion occurs at ground level, the sound wave can get totally reflected from the warmer upper layer (in which the sound travel faster, i.e. the air has lower acoustic refractive index, so the sound can undergo total internal reflection) and return back to ground level; the sound is therefore heard much further than normal. The shock wave from an explosion can be reflected by an inversion layer in much the same way as it bounces off the ground in an air-burst and can cause additional damage as a result. This phenomenon killed three people in the RDS-37 nuclear test.
In an inversion, vertical motion in the atmosphere is suppressed because the atmosphere is stable. Hence vertical heat transport by eddies is suppressed; this reduced
downwards) heat transport leads to further cooling of the lower surface. This can lead to an effective decoupling of the atmosphere from the surface in extreme conditions, such as may be found in Antarctica during the polar night, where inversions greater than 25 °C commonly occur.When it happens the sky is a reddish color.
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have them i will give moreca bit later
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only a few chapters. i mean im ready for the problems after partition, ayub khan, yahya khan, east pakistan, za bhutto, zia ul haq. others i dont want to waste time preparing because my section 1 and 2 are perfectl y ready
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NICE ONE
thank u
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Oh Yeah, I know the first chapter of section3 and I have prepared countries relations chapter like whole and it wont be difficult so I am gonna do 2 chapters from section 3 and leave zia one.
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ok
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- Messages
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AnytimeThank you Ushnaaa
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u got notes from key points book?
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I dont know where they are originally from.I just got it from some thread.